Course Number 792050: Astronomy

Instructor: Jim Napolitano

Department of Physics, Applied Physics, and Astronomy

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

You can jump to specific pieces of course material from the following table:

Week 1

• Monday Lecture: PS or Framemaker
• The course
• Course outline
• Example of things to come: The Crab (HST)
• Zeilik Figures 8-1 and 8-2 (my version)
• Electromagnetic Waves
• The EM Spectrum
• Diffraction
• Doppler Effect
• Sources of EM Radiation
• Line emission (UW-S)
• The hydrogen atom
• Zeilik Figure 8-9 (my version)
• Example: The Eagle Nebula (AAO) and as seen by HST
• Wednesday Lecture: PS or Framemaker
• Introduction
• Other line sources
• Absorption lines (UW-S)
• Energy and temperature
• Blackbody radiation
• Radiance and Planck's formula
• Planck spectrum (UW-S)
• Example: The Sun, Shu Fig. 5.1
• Example: Some stars' spectra (UO)
• Wien's Displacement Law: Color
• Stefan-Boltzmann Law: Luminosity
• Example: Red Giant (Betelgeuse-HST)
• Example: White dwarf (M4-HST)
• Friday Studio. There are two possibilities:
• One option is a MAPLE exercise on interpreting a blackbody spectrum
. You may either work the problem on RCS and hand in a printout of your session, or you can fill out the worksheet as we will do in the studio. It may also be possible to just copy your studio session to the server where we'll look at it later for grading.
• The second examines line spectra, more or less following Hoff exercise 11. You will mainly use gas discharge tubes to produce emission spectra. Here is an example, taken from the book by Abell.

Week 2

• Wednesday Lecture: PS or Framemaker
• Telescopes
• Diffraction
• Resolving power
• The atmosphere
• Zeilik: Fig 9-5
• Example: The William Herschel Telescope
• Example: The Hubble Space Telescope (HST)
• Photograph
• Drawing
• Corrective optics: WFPC and Faint Object Camera
• Image recording instruments
• M57: RGB (OSU) and as filters
• Radio astronomy
• Example: Arecibo
• Example: The VLA dish and array
• X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy
• Example: ROSAT
• Friday Studio. The exercise of the week is to build a scale model of the solar system, including the solar radii and the planets' orbit radii. You should also include as many planet radii as possible. You'll hand in a worksheet (for each group), which also contains an outline to help you prepare. Be creative!
Either bring scissors, tape measure, etc. to class, or put something together ahead of time. You may want to use a relatively large fraction of campus!

Week 3

• Monday Lecture: PS or Framemaker
• Stars: Distances and Magnitudes
• Parallax and the parsec
• Magnitude scales
• Stefan-Boltzmann Law (From Week 1 Wed)
• Apparent magnitude
• Magnitudes at different wavelengths
• Color index
• Example: Star clusters M45 and M5 (AAO)
• Zeilik Figs.13-9 and 13-10
• Wednesday Lecture: PS or Framemaker
• Absolute magnitude
• Bolometric magnitude
• Binary star systems
• Kinds of binary systems
• Visual binary example: Capella
• Masses from the orbit
• Mass-Luminosity relation
• Zeilik Fig.12-3
• How long does a star live?
• Spectroscopic binaries
• Example: A new planet?
• Eclipsing binaries
• Zeilik Fig. 12.11
• Recap
• Friday Studio. The main topic is eclipsing binary systems, illustrated in Hoff exercise #22 with pluto and charon. A DOS exercise is also available, as is a demonstration program, both through a page at Texas A&M.

Week 4

• Monday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Stellar classifications: Intro
• Absorption lines (From Week1 Wed)
• Spectral lines: Karttunen Fig.9.2a
• Example: Some stars' spectra (UO)
• Stellar classification: Basic idea
• Zeilik Table 13-1 (OBAFGKM)
• Temperature and classification
• Zeilik Figure 13-6
• Magnitude and A0 stars
• Gravitation in stars
• Hydrostatic equilibrium
• Application: Central pressure
• Application: Line broadening
• Zeilik Table 13-2 (MK classes)
• Zeilik Table A4-2 (Bright stars)
• Wednesday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• HR Diagrams: Intro
• Layout of an HR Diagram
• Example: Karttunen Fig.9-10
• Example: Zeilik Fig.13-8(C)
• Stellar radii from HR Diagrams
• Karttunen Fig.9-12: Lines of constant radius
• Zeilik Fig.13-11(B): MK Luminosity classes
• Worked Example: Radius from spectral classification
• Example: M45 and Zeilik Fig.13-9
• Example: M3 and Zeilik Fig.13-10
• Example: M4 (HST): White dwarfs in the HR Diagram.
• What HR Diagrams tell us
• Application: The distance to star clusters
• Zeilik Fig.13-14(B)
• Friday Studio. This week, you can choose from two exercises in Hoff. These are number 26 on spectral classification, and number 27 which has you plot a color-magnitude HR diagram for the Pleiades (M45).

Week 5

• Monday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Stars and our Galaxy
• Star fields(AAT)
• Milky Way
• IR images of the disk and bulge (COBE)
• Gamma ray image from EGRET
• M31 (UO)
• M51 (UO)
• Does our Galaxy have spiral arms?
• M16 (AAT)
• Globular clusters
• M3 (SEDS)
• LMC (AAT)
• SMC (AAT)
• NGC 6822 (AAT)
• Zeilik Table 14-1
• Zeilik Figure 14-11
• Stellar populations
• Galactic rotation
• Newton's law of gravity: Review
• Gravity in a mass distribution
• Zeilik Figure 15-10
• Galaxy Model (MM) (See also Zeilik Figure 14-10)
• Spiral arms and galactic rotation
• Zeilik Figure 14-9
• Wednesday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Physics of the Main Sequence
• Zeilik Fig.16-1: Hydrostatic Equilibrium
• Hydrostatic equilibrium
• Central pressure of a star
• The equation of state
• Calculating the mean molecular weight
• Central temperature of a star
• Where does a star get its power from?
• Nuclear reactions
• Karttunen Fig.11-4: Binding energies of nuclei
• Hydrogen burning
• The pp chains
• The CNO cycle
• Zeilik Fig.16-2: Rates for PP and CNO
• Helium burning
• Friday Studio. There is a change from the course outline this week. Everyone will do Hoff #28, calculating the distance to the Pleiades. You will have a choice next week, one option being the code which calculates the Main Sequence.

First Exam

Week 6

• Monday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Physics of the Main Sequence (Review)
• Overview of stellar evolution
• Stellar models
• Zero Age Main Sequence (ZAMS): Karttunen Table 11.1
• Three stages of stellar evolution
• Collapse of a gas cloud
• Zeilik Fig.16-3
• Trifid nebula(SEDS)
• Evolution off the Main Sequence
• Zeilik Fig.16-4 and Table 16-1
• Zeilik Fig.13-8: The Helium Main Sequence (K Stars with M=2)
• Zeilik Fig.16-5 and Table 16-2
• Planetary nebulae: M57- Ring Nebula, Several examples, The Helix Nebula
• Evolution off the Main Sequence: MPEG Movie (UMa)
• Wednesday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Evolution of a One Solar Mass Star (Review)
• Zeilik Fig.16-5 and Table 16-2
• Diagrams of interiors (UO)
• Main Sequence
• Post Main Sequence
• Red Giant
• Post Red Giant
• Planetary Nebula
• Movie version
• Example: M57
• Limits of Stellar Mass
• Zeilik Fig.16-7
• Big star example: Eta Carinae (HST)
• Small star example: Gl229B (HST)
• HR Diagrams of Clusters
• Evolution and HR Diagrams
• Evolution diagram movies: Symbolic (UMa) and in words (UMa)
• Evolution of a cluster: MPEG Movie (UMa)
• HR Diagrams of Open and Globular Clusters (UW-S)
• Examples of Open Clusters: Zeilik Fig.16-9
• Very young: M45
• Middle age: M44
• Very old: M67
• Another example: M11 (The Wild Duck Cluster). HR Diagram in Brocato, et al, Astronomical Journal, 105(1993)2192.
• Old clusters: M5 (Globular) and Trumpler 5 (Open)
• Zeilik Fig.16-10(B): HR Diagram of M5
• Zeilik Fig.16-8: Horizontal spreading in Population II Stars
• Synthesis of the Elements
• Karttunen Fig. 12-10: Element abundances
• Zeilik Table 16-3: Element creation and stellar mass
• Zeilik Fig.16-11: Evolution and element creation
• Friday Studio. There are two possibilities:
• One option is a study of cluster ages from their HR Diagrams. This follows Hoff Exercise 29. Just do part 1 and answer question 1, both dealing with the age of the clusters involved.
• You may instead investigate a stellar modeling code. This is described in more detail here.

Week 7

• Monday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• White dwarf stars
• End state after planetary nebula
• Example: HR Diagram in M4 (HST)
• Zeilik Fig. 17-5: Radii
• Example: Sirius B with image
• Electrons at high density
• The equation of state for a gas
• The equation of state for a degenerate Fermi gas
• Implications of P proportional to rho^(5/3)
• Cooling a white dwarf star
• The Chandrasekhar limit
• Wednesday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Implications of P proportional to rho^(5/3)
• The Chandrasekhar limit
• Neutron stars
• Detecting neutron stars (I)
• Detecting neutron stars (II)
• Neutron star model
• The Crab pulsar (HST):
• Optical image
• Changes
• Schematic
• X-ray image and pulse (ROSAT)
• Some pulsar data
• Crab movies (HST):
• Images
• Animation
• Pulsars slow down
• Gravitational red shift
• Examples => Black Holes
• Detecting black holes
• The Roche limit
• Zeilik Fig. 17-15
• Illustration
• Friday Studio: No studio this week. Enjoy the long weekend.

Week 8

• Wednesday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Variable Stars and Planetary Nebulae
• Types of Variable Stars
• Naming stars
• Zeilik Table 18-1
• Zeilik Figure 18-1
• Cepheids and RR Lyrae Stars
• Light curve data:
• Cepheid light curve
• Kutner Figure 10.5
• Zeilik Figure 18-2
• Distant cepheids
• Example: Cepheids in M100 (HST)
• One view
• Another view
• Pulsation mechanism
• Period-Luminosity relationship
• Zeilik Figure 18-3
• Karttunen Figure 14.6
• Zeilik Figure 13-10 (The RR Lyrae gap.)
• A worked example
• Cepheid movies (HST)
• Cepheid mechanism
• Cepheids in M100
• Planetary nebulae
• Schematic of a planetary nebula
• Examples of planetary nebulae
• M57: The Ring Nebula
• RGB (OSU)
• Deep view (UO)
• CO Emission (Microwave)
• Helix nebula (AAO)
• NGC6543 as false RGB and as ratios (HST)
• FLIERS (UW)
• Friday Studio. This week's studio measures the distance to galaxy M81 using recent HST data obtained from the McMaster Cepheid Data Archive. Details are here, but also see Zeilik Sec.18-2 and the class notes.

Week 9

• Monday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Eruptive variables: Novae and Supernovae
• Zeilik Figure 18-11
• Zeilik Table 18-3 condensed
• Novae
• Nova Cygni 1992
• Supernovae
• Example: SN1993J in M81
  • Optical
  • Remnant
• Supernova in a distant galaxy: Before and After
• Zeilik Figure 18-16
• Energy from gravitational collapse
• Karttunen Fig.11-4: Binding energies of nuclei
• Type II Supernovae: Core collapse
• Rolfs & Rodney Table 8.1: Massive star evolution
• Rolfs & Rodney Figure 8.10: Shells in a pre-supernova star
• Nucleosynthesis in Type II Supernovae
• Karttunen Fig.12-10: Abundances of nuclei
• Remnants: The Crab Nebula (HST) and its polarization (AAO)
• SN1987A in the LMC (AAO)
• Supernova SN1987A Before and After
• Zeilik Figure 18-20
• Powering the light curve
• Neutrinos from SN1987A
• Supernova SN1987A: Problems and mysteries
• Zeilik Figure 18-21
• Light echos (AAO)
• Leftovers (AAO)
• Rings (HST)
• Wednesday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• X-ray binaries
• Accretion
• Zeilik Figure 17-15
• Motion of binary systems
• Cygnus X-1
• X-ray image (EXOSAT)
• Solving for the mass
• Zeilik Figure 18-24
• Centaurus X-3
• X-ray eclipses (HEAS)
• Zeilik Figure 18-25
• SS 433 (For images and details, see Bruce Margon.)
• Optical image
• Hydrogen lines
• X-rays
• Binary motion
• Model of SS433
• Jets
• Zeilik Figure 18-26
• The complete Doppler effect
• Solving for jet velocity and angles
• Friday Studio. This week we will do Hoff exercise #30, studying the magnitude and light curve of Supernova SN1987A. Don't forget that you can do the exercise ahead of time if you like, and use the studio time to ask questions as preparation for the exam.

Second Exam

Week 10

• Monday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• The Interstellar Medium
• Interstellar dust
• The Milky Way
• The Horsehead Nebula (AAO)
• The Pleiades (AAO)
• Zeilik Figure 19-4
• Reddening in nebulae (AAO)
• The coalsack: See Friday's studio
• Interstellar reddening
• Worked example
• Interstellar gas
• M16: The Eagle (AAO)
• M20: The Trifid (AAO)
• Antares and Rho Orphiuci (AAO)
• Rosette (AAO)
• HII region in M33 (HST)
• The Orion Nebula: Full (AAO) and inner (AAO)
• Other ways to heat gas
• Ring nebula (OSU)
• The Helix (AAO)
• The Crab Nebula (AAO) and its polarization (AAO)
• Cygnus loop in X-ray (HEAS)
• Puppis A and SNR in X-ray (HEAS)
• Cassiopeia A (VLA)
• Zeilik Fig. 19-10
• Cold hydrogen gas in the ISM
• Cold molecular gas in the ISM
• Zeilik Table 19-1
• Orion ridge (UMass)
• The Multi-Wavelength Map of the Milky Way
• Wednesday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Star Formation
• HII region in M33 (HST)
• Collapse of a gas cloud (Week 6, Monday)
• Zeilik Fig. 16-3
• When collapse occurs: Jeans Mass
• Values for the Jeans Mass
• Conservation of Angular Momentum
• Zeilik Fig. 19-21
• Zeilik Fig. 19-20
• Stellar jets and disks: HST Observations
• Zeilik Fig. 19-25
• Starbirth in the Helix Nebula: HST Observations
• Starbirth in the Eagle Nebula: HST Observations
• The Orion Nebula: Full and inner (AAO)
• Inner Orion Nebula: IR image (OSU)
• Zeilik Fig. 19-24B
• Orion protoplanetary disks (HST)
• Edge-on disk (HST)
• Beta Pictoris: Warped Disk and movie (HST)
• Friday Studio. This exercise is on how stars appear "reddened" if they pass through interstellar dust and gas. It is based on exercise eight in Exercises in Practical Astronomy using Photographs, M.T.Bruck, Adam Hilger (1990). The exercise uses photographs of a particular dusty region of the sky using blue, red, and infrared filters. A description of the procedure is available here.

Week 11

• Monday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Structure and evolution of the Milky Way
• Images of the Milky Way
• Visible light
• Infrared
• Gamma ray
• Multi-Wavelength
• Zeilik Table 14-1: Properties
• Zeilik Table 20-1 / Karttunen Table 18.1: Populations
• Model of the Milky Way
• Galactic rotation
• The galactic rotation curve
• Mapping spiral arms
• Zeilik Figure 20-1: 21cm profiles
• Zeilik Figure 20-3: Arms in 21cm
• Zeilik Figure 20-7: Arms from several sources
• Are the arms from galactic rotation?
• Zeilik Figure 14-9: NO
• Spiral density waves
• Model in M81: Shu Fig 12.35
• The Galactic Center
• VLA image of center and arc
• Zeilik Figure 20-9
• Proper motion and central mass: Nature v.383 pp. 389 & 415
• Zeilik Figure 20-12
• Collapse of a gas cloud
• Collapse of the galaxy from a gas cloud
• Wednesday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Galaxies
• Tuning fork: Zeilik Fig.21-1
• Ellipitcal galaxies
• Comparison of M32 and M87 using distance to M87
• Spiral galaxies
• Ordinary spiral (AAO)
• Barred spiral (AAO)
• M74: An Sc galaxy in the visible and UV (UO)
• Spiral variations
• Edge-on spiral
• Oddball galaxies
• Dwarf irregular (AAO)
• M82 (UO)
• M51 (UO)
• Cartwheel (HST)
• NGC4038/4039 (OSU)
• Centaurus A (AAO)
• Zeilik Table 21-1
• The morphological mix
• Zeilik Figure 21-6
• Invisible radiations
• Zeilik Figure 21-7
Zeilik Figure 21-8
• X-rays from M31 (ROSAT)
• Galactic rotation curves
• Zeilik Figure 21-9
• Karttunen Figure 19.7
• Lots of galaxies (HST)
• Friday Studio. This week we will see how astronomers attempt to map the spiral arms of the Galaxy. The exercise uses the CUPS Astrophysics programs on Galactic Kinematics, written by Anthony Danby. The Consortium for Upper level Physics Software is a series of programs and associated documentation, published by John Wiley and Sons.

Week 12

• Monday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Hubble's Law: Expansion of the universe
• Redshift
• Example: NGC3147 (from the Hubble Constant Lab, by Luis Mendoza et al. at the University of Washington
• Hubble's Law
• Brightness, Distance, and Hubble's Law
• Verifying Hubble's Law: Kutner Fig.18.7
• What does it mean? Expansion!
• The age of the universe
• Measuring the Hubble constant. Some landmark objects:
• M101: visible and UV (UO)
• M87 (AAO)
• HII regions: 30 Doradus (HST)
• Galaxies with Cepheids and Supernovae: NGC 4639 (HST)
• Kutner Table 18.1; See also Zeilik Table 22-1
• Zeilik Figure 22-3
• Kutner Figure 18.10; See also Zeilik Figure 22-4
• Values for H0
• Zeilik Figure 22-5
• Zeilik Figure 22-6
• Measurements with Type I and Type II Supernovae
• Looking back in time: Red galaxies in the Hubble Deep Field (HST)
• Wednesday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Large scale structure in the universe
• Clusters of galaxies
• The local group: Zeilik Figure 23-1 and Table 23-1
• M31 (with M32) (UO)
• M33 (AAO)
• LMC (AAO)
• SMC (AAO)
• NGC 6822 (AAO)
• Leo I (AAO)
• The M96 group (UO)
• The Virgo cluster
• M87 (AAO)
• Visible and X-ray images (SEDS)
• The Coma cluster
• Closeup of NGC4881 (HST)
• Dynamics of galaxy clusters
• Cannibalism: NGC4038/4039 (OSU)and Centaurus A (AAO) (AAO)
• Zeilik Figure 23-5
• Zeilik Figure 23-10
• Superclusters and voids
• The APM survey
• Zeilik Figure 23-11
• Las Campanas Redshift Survey Note: This is a gzipped postscript file
• Intergalactic matter
• Rosat: Cluster X-Rays
• Looking back in time with the HST
• Galaxies in the young universe
• Faint irregular blue galaxies
• The Hubble Deep Field
• Friday Studio. I've put something together in place of the Hoff exercises (#30 and #31) that are listed in the syllabus. The exercise instead lets you get an idea of how Hubble's Law can be tested, and the Hubble Constant can be extracted, using "Brightest Cluster Galaxies" as standard candles.

Week 13

• Monday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Active Galaxies I
• Starburst galaxies. Some examples:
• NGC 263 (HST)
• M82: Visible, Halpha, and Radio
• M87: A radio galaxy (AAO)
• Zeilik Figure 24-8
• The jet in M87 (UO)
• Radiations from M87
• Radio galaxies
• Synchrotron radiation
• Zeilik Table 24-1
• The jet mechanism
• Cygnus A: Radio, Optical, and X-Ray
• Radiations from Cygnus A
• Three other radio galaxies: Radio and optical (HST)
• NGC 4261: Accretion disk? (HST)
• M87: Accretion disk! with Doppler shift (HST)
• The central mass of M87
• The black hole engine
• Wednesday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Active Galaxies II
• Radio Galaxies summary
• Active galaxy model (MM)
• BL Lac objects
• Zeilik Figure 24-3
• Seyfert galaxies: Bright nuclei
• Example: M77 (UO)
• Example: NGC 4151
• Zeilik Figure 24-2: Note redshift in lines
• The model (MM)
• Quasars
• 3C273: Optical (John Bahcall)
• 3C273: Jet (John Bahcall)
• Zeilik Figure 24-15: Note BIG redshift in lines
• AGN's and quasars: A common thread
• Kutner Figure 19.13 (Also Hoff #33): Variability
• Weird stuff with quasars
• Zeilik Figure 24-17: Superluminal motion?
• Zeilik Figure 24-19: Double quasars?
• Controversey resolved: Quasars are Active Galactic Nuclei:
• PKS 2349 (HST)
• PKS 2349 (HST)
• PG 0052+251 (John Bahcall)
• A collection (John Bahcall)
• See also the recent HST page, and the movie
• Friday Studio. This week you are to complete Hoff Exercise #33. Do all four parts, but skip the discussion questions since they refer to the "controversy" which is now likely resolved. The exercise will give you the chance to put a number of concepts together, including redshifts, Hubble's law, magnitudes, and the maximum size of an object as determined by its variability.

Third Exam

Week 14

• Monday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Gravitation and Cosmology
• The expanding universe
• Escape velocity (again)
• Newtonian cosmology
• Zeilik Figure 25-2
• The flat universe
• The General Theory of Relativity
• Fundamental geometry: Two kinds of vectors
• Fundamental geometry: Inner products and the Metric Tensor
• Relativistic line elements
• The Schwarzschild radius
• Radar sounding from Venus: Shapiro, et al., Physical Review Letters 26(1971)1132
• Gravitational lenses:
• Zeilik Figure 24-19
• Einstein Crosses (HST)
• Galaxy cluster (HST)
• Cosmology and General Relativity
• Galaxies as uniform, isotropic "dust"
• Is the universe flat?
• Wednesday Lecture. No Wednesday lecture this week.
• Friday Studio. No studio this week.

Week 15

• Monday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• The Big Bang
• Hubble's Law: The universe is expanding
• The flat universe
• The 3K Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB): Zeilik Figure 25-3 and COBE
• Inside a blackbody
• Matter and radiation in the universe today
• Matter and radiation in early universe
• The hot big bang
• Particle physics: Overview
• The primoridal soup
• Epochs of particle creation
• Cosmic timeline
• Breaking down the CMB(COBE)
• The CMB anisotropy(COBE)
• Future goal: The MAP project
• Wednesday Lecture PS or Framemaker
• Formation of the universe
• Is the universe flat?
• Dark matter candidates: Conventional or exotic
• Creation of the elements
• Epochs of particle creation
• Zeilik Figure 26-1
• Primordial abundances: Predictions and observation
• Inflationary cosmology
• Formation of the galaxies
• Anisotropies: Sky map, Redshifts, and CMB (COBE)
• Observations with the HST:
• Galaxies in the young universe
• The Hubble Deep Field
• Building blocks of galaxies
• Galaxy formation movie (HST)
• Friday Studio. This is the final studio period. We will use it as a question and answer review time. Bring your questions! If you like, we can go over some review questions I've made.

Week 16

• Monday Lecture (Course review) PS or Framemaker

Final Exam

The distribution of class scores gives an average of 76.50. Course grades are available from Nicolle after 5pm on Monday, Dec.16, or from SIS as soon as the registrar records them.

Other Textbooks

• Physical Astronomy
• Astronomy: A Physical Perspective, M. Kutner, Wiley (1987)
• The Physical Universe, F. Shu, University Science Books (1982)
• Observational Astrophysics, R. Smith, Cambridge (1995)
• Fundamental Astronomy, H. Karttunen, et al., Springer (1994)
• Quantitative Astronomy, T. Swihart, Prentice Hall (1992)
• Descriptive Astronomy
• Astronomy Today, E. Chaisson and S. McMillan, Prentice Hall (1996). This book comes with its own web page.
• Astronomy!, J. Kaler, Harper Collins (1994)
• Exploration of the Universe, Abell, Morrison, Wolff, Saunders (1991)
• Introductory Physics
• Physics, 4th Ed., Resnick, Halliday, and Krane, Wiley (1992)
• Fundamentals of Physics, 4th Ed., Resnick, Halliday, and Walker, Wiley (1993)
• Principles of Physics, R. Serway, Saunders (1994)
• Modern Physics, 2nd Ed., K. Krane, Wiley (1996)

Other Educational Web Resources on Astronomy

• Astronomical images
  • Hubble Space Telescope Public Pictures (HST)
  • Photographs by David Malin (AAO)
  • SEDS (SEDS)
  • CCD Images of Messier Objects(UO)
  • Ohio State University Picture Gallery (OSU)
  • The COBE mission
• University of Oregon (UO)
• University of Washington:
• Nick Strobel (UW-S)
• Doug Ingram (UW-I)
• Toby Smith
• Luis Mendoza
• University of Southampton (MM)
• George Mason University (GMU)
• Syracuse University (SU)
• University of Massachussetts (UMa)
• Project CLEA